What are Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs)?

In October 2025, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced one of the most significant recognitions in modern materials science: the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar Yaghi for their pioneering work on metal-organic frameworks. This recognition validates decades of research into materials that many scientists believe could help address some of humanity’s most pressing challenges, from climate change to water scarcity. Metal-organic frameworks represent a revolutionary class of materials that have transformed our understanding of what is possible in material design and functionality.

Metal-organic frameworks, commonly known as MOFs, are crystalline porous materials composed of metal ions or clusters coordinated to organic ligands to form one-, two-, or three-dimensional structures. These materials combine the properties of inorganic materials with organic chemistry, creating hybrid structures with extraordinary characteristics that have captured the attention of researchers across multiple disciplines.

The Fundamental Structure

At their core, MOFs are architectural marvels at the molecular scale. They consist of two primary components that work in concert to create their unique structure. The first component comprises metal ions or metal clusters, often referred to as secondary building units (SBUs), which act as the nodes or joints in the framework. The second component consists of organic molecules called linkers or struts, which bridge the metal centers through coordination bonds.

The metal nodes can be single atoms or clusters of atoms. Common metals used in MOF construction include zinc, copper, iron, aluminum, zirconium, and many others from across the periodic table. These metal centers bring their inherent chemical properties to the framework, contributing to the overall functionality of the material. Metal clusters are frequently connected by oxygen atoms and possess specific geometries that determine how they connect with organic linkers.

The organic linkers are typically molecules with multiple coordination sites, such as carboxylic acids, nitrogen-containing compounds like imidazoles, or phosphonates. One commonly used linker is 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid, also known as terephthalic acid. The length, rigidity, and functionality of these organic linkers directly influence the size and properties of the pores within the framework.

When metal nodes and organic linkers come together through coordination bonds, they self-assemble into extended periodic structures. These structures arrange themselves in repeating patterns, which is why MOFs are often described as reticular materials, from the Latin word “reticulum” meaning small net. The coordination between metals and ligands creates frameworks that maintain their structural integrity even when guest molecules are removed from the pores.

Historical Development and Nobel Recognition

The story of MOFs begins in the late 1980s, when Australian chemist Richard Robson first reasoned that it would be possible to create these frameworks. Inspired by the structure of diamonds, Robson constructed a similar architecture based on positively charged copper ions combined with an organic linker containing four nitrile groups. These components organized themselves into a large molecular construction resembling the carbon arrangement in diamonds. This pioneering work established the conceptual foundation for what would become the field of MOF chemistry.

The field advanced significantly in the early 1990s when Susumu Kitagawa began experimenting with molecular constructions. His breakthrough came in 1997, when using cobalt, nickel, or zinc ions combined with 4,4′-bipyridine molecules, his research group created three-dimensional MOFs intersected by open channels. When this structure was emptied of water, it remained intact and could reversibly adsorb gases including methane, nitrogen, and oxygen without changing shape. In 1998, Kitagawa published his vision for MOFs, highlighting their enormous potential and reasoning that they could also form soft, flexible materials that would change shape under different conditions.

Concurrently, Omar Yaghi was making revolutionary contributions to the field. In 1995, he published structures of two different two-dimensional materials held together by copper or cobalt. The cobalt structures could host guest molecules and demonstrated remarkable stability, withstanding temperatures up to 350 degrees Celsius without collapsing. It was at this point that Yaghi coined the term “metal-organic framework” when he published his work in Nature.

A watershed moment came in 1999 with Yaghi’s development of MOF-5, the first MOF to exhibit ultra-high porosity. Constructed from zinc oxide clusters and terephthalate linkers, MOF-5 demonstrated unique properties including exceptionally high surface area, structural robustness, and versatility. This material could be heated to 300 degrees Celsius even when empty, establishing MOFs as a platform technology with applications ranging from gas storage and separation to catalysis and sensing. MOF-5’s surface area reaches approximately 2,200 square meters per cubic centimeter, which is roughly 15 times greater than the surface area of human lungs.

In the early 2000s, Yaghi demonstrated that it is possible to produce entire families of MOF materials with different properties by systematically varying the organic linkers. This rational design approach, which he termed reticular chemistry, allowed researchers to predict and control the properties of MOFs before synthesizing them. This capability distinguished MOFs from earlier porous materials and opened up unprecedented possibilities for materials design.

The 2025 Nobel Prize recognition came with the committee’s observation that metal-organic frameworks have enormous potential, bringing previously unforeseen opportunities for custom-made materials with new functions. The Nobel Committee highlighted that these molecular constructions can harvest water from desert air, capture carbon dioxide, store toxic gases, and catalyze chemical reactions, representing significant advances toward addressing global challenges.

Extraordinary Properties

The defining characteristic of MOFs is their porosity. Unlike most solid materials, MOFs contain vast internal spaces. The pores within MOFs can occupy up to 90 percent or more of the crystalline volume, creating materials that are essentially more empty space than solid matter. This extreme porosity is what gives MOFs their remarkable properties.

The surface area of MOFs is truly exceptional. While traditional porous materials like activated carbon might have surface areas of several hundred square meters per gram, MOFs can exceed 6,000 square meters per gram. To put this in perspective, a single gram of certain MOFs contains internal surface area equivalent to multiple soccer fields. This enormous surface area provides abundant sites for gas molecules to adsorb, making MOFs incredibly efficient for applications requiring molecular capture or storage.

The pore size in MOFs ranges from a few angstroms to several nanometers in diameter. One angstrom equals 0.1 nanometers, making these pores capable of discriminating between molecules based on size differences of less than a nanometer. This precision allows MOFs to act as molecular sieves, selectively capturing certain molecules while allowing others to pass through. The pore size can be deliberately controlled by selecting linkers of different lengths, with longer linkers creating larger pores.

The tunability of MOFs represents perhaps their most powerful attribute. By changing the metal center, the organic linker, or both, researchers can systematically modify the pore size, shape, chemistry, and functionality of the framework. This design flexibility allows MOFs to be tailored for specific applications. For example, incorporating amine groups can enhance carbon dioxide capture, while hydrophobic modifications can improve water stability.

The crystalline nature of MOFs means their structures can be determined with atomic precision using techniques like single-crystal X-ray diffraction. This level of structural knowledge is rare in porous materials and allows researchers to understand exactly where every atom sits within the framework. Such detailed structural information enables rational design and helps researchers predict how molecules will interact with the MOF.

Many MOFs exhibit thermal stability up to 250 to 500 degrees Celsius due to the strong coordination bonds between metals and organic ligands. However, thermal stability varies significantly depending on the specific metal-linker combination. Zirconium-based MOFs, for instance, tend to exhibit exceptional thermal and chemical stability compared to frameworks based on other metals.

Some MOFs demonstrate flexibility, changing their structure in response to external stimuli such as temperature, pressure, or the presence of specific molecules. This flexibility can be exploited for applications like selective gas capture, where the framework “breathes” to accommodate guest molecules. Other MOFs maintain rigid structures, providing stable environments for catalysis or long-term gas storage.

Synthesis Methods

The synthesis of MOFs involves bringing together metal sources and organic linkers under conditions that promote framework formation. Multiple synthetic approaches have been developed, each with advantages for different applications and scales of production.

Solvothermal synthesis remains the most widely used method for MOF preparation. In this approach, metal salts and organic linkers are dissolved in a solvent, typically N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), methanol, or ethanol, and heated in a sealed vessel at temperatures between 80 and 200 degrees Celsius. The elevated temperature and pressure promote crystal growth and framework formation. When water is used as the solvent, the method is specifically called hydrothermal synthesis. Solvothermal methods generally produce MOFs with high crystallinity and well-defined structures, making them suitable for fundamental research and applications requiring precise structural control.

Microwave-assisted synthesis has emerged as a rapid alternative to conventional heating methods. By using microwave radiation to heat the reaction mixture, MOF synthesis can be completed in minutes to hours rather than days. This method provides uniform heating throughout the reaction vessel and can lead to smaller, more uniform crystals. The speed and energy efficiency of microwave synthesis make it attractive for rapid screening of new MOF structures.

Mechanochemical synthesis involves grinding solid metal salts and organic linkers together, sometimes with small amounts of solvent added. This solvent-free or minimal-solvent approach aligns with green chemistry principles by reducing waste and eliminating the need for large volumes of organic solvents. Ball milling equipment can facilitate mechanochemical synthesis at scale, producing MOFs with properties comparable to those made by conventional methods.

Electrochemical synthesis uses electrical current to dissolve metal electrodes in a solution containing organic linkers. This method offers precise control over the metal source and can produce high-purity MOFs. The electrochemical approach is particularly interesting for continuous production and can be more environmentally friendly than methods requiring metal salts and organic solvents.

Sonochemical synthesis employs ultrasonic irradiation to promote MOF formation. The cavitation bubbles generated by ultrasound create localized high temperatures and pressures that facilitate crystal nucleation and growth. This method can produce nanocrystalline MOFs with controllable particle sizes.

For commercial production, continuous-flow synthesis has become increasingly important. These systems involve continuously feeding reactants into a reactor and continuously removing product, rather than working in discrete batches. Continuous-flow methods enable consistent quality control and can be scaled to produce tons of material. Companies developing commercial MOF applications have invested heavily in developing continuous-flow synthesis processes that can meet industrial-scale demands while maintaining quality and controlling costs.

Post-synthetic modification (PSM) represents a powerful strategy for functionalizing MOFs after their initial synthesis. Since some functional groups cannot withstand the conditions required for MOF synthesis, PSM allows researchers to introduce these groups afterward. This can involve modifying the organic linkers through chemical reactions, exchanging metal ions for different metals, or incorporating guest molecules into the pores. PSM has expanded the functional diversity of MOFs and enabled applications that would be impossible with as-synthesized frameworks alone.

Applications in Carbon Capture

Climate change driven by carbon dioxide emissions represents one of the most urgent global challenges. Metal-organic frameworks have emerged as promising materials for capturing CO2 from various sources, offering potential advantages over traditional carbon capture technologies.

In post-combustion carbon capture, flue gases from power plants and industrial facilities pass through MOF-based materials. The MOFs selectively adsorb CO2 from the gas mixture, which also contains nitrogen, water vapor, and other components. The high selectivity of MOFs for CO2 over other gases makes them efficient at this task. After capturing CO2, the MOF can be regenerated by heating or reducing pressure, releasing the captured CO2 in concentrated form for storage or utilization.

One particularly significant development is CALF-20 (Calgary Framework 20), a MOF developed through collaboration between Svante Inc. and researchers at the University of Calgary. This material can capture up to 95 percent of CO2 emitted from industrial sources such as cement and hydrogen production plants. CALF-20 demonstrates high CO2 capacity and selectivity even in the presence of water vapor, addressing a common challenge in carbon capture. The material uses low-temperature steam for regeneration, reducing the energy requirements compared to conventional amine-scrubbing processes.

Svante has developed a manufacturing process called “Sorbent on a Roll” that coats CALF-20 onto sheet laminates, which are then stacked into high-performance filters. This approach enables production at the ton scale required for industrial carbon capture plants. A typical cement plant carbon capture facility requires approximately 200 tons of sorbent material, illustrating the importance of scalable manufacturing.

Pre-combustion carbon capture represents another application where MOFs show promise. In gasification processes, carbon-containing fuels are converted into synthesis gas (syngas) containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide. MOFs can selectively capture CO2 from syngas, purifying it for subsequent use in chemical synthesis processes such as methanol production, ammonia synthesis, or Fischer-Tropsch reactions.

Direct air capture, which removes CO2 directly from the atmosphere, presents greater technical challenges than point-source capture due to the much lower CO2 concentration in air (approximately 420 parts per million). In October 2024, Yaghi’s research team reported a covalent organic framework (a related material to MOFs) capable of pulling CO2 directly from ambient air. His team continues working to simplify the synthesis and scale up production of this material.

The advantages of MOFs for carbon capture include their high CO2 selectivity, excellent cycling stability, and lower energy requirements for regeneration compared to traditional amine scrubbing. Market analyses predict substantial growth in MOF use for carbon capture, with some projections suggesting a 33-fold increase in demand between the mid-2020s and mid-2030s. Several MOF manufacturers have strategically focused on carbon capture technologies, recognizing the urgent need for cost-effective CO2 removal solutions.

However, challenges remain. Many MOFs are sensitive to moisture, which is present in most flue gas streams. Water can compete with CO2 for adsorption sites or, in some cases, degrade the framework structure. Researchers are addressing this by developing water-stable MOFs or materials where water actually enhances CO2 selectivity. The cost of MOF production also needs to decrease further for widespread industrial adoption, driving ongoing research into more economical synthesis methods and less expensive precursor materials.

Water Harvesting Applications

Access to clean water represents a critical challenge for approximately one-third of the world’s population living in water-stressed regions. Metal-organic frameworks offer a novel approach to addressing water scarcity through atmospheric water harvesting, capturing water vapor from air even in arid conditions.

The concept involves using MOFs that preferentially adsorb water vapor at night when humidity is higher and temperatures are lower. During the day, solar energy heats the MOF, causing it to release the captured water as liquid. This cycle can repeat daily without requiring external energy input beyond ambient solar heating.

MOF-303, an aluminum-based framework developed by Yaghi’s team, has demonstrated particular promise for water harvesting. The structure of MOF-303 contains pores specifically sized and chemically suited for water capture. Researchers tested a MOF-303-based device in Death Valley, California, one of the driest places on Earth, successfully harvesting water from the air.

In 2021, under humid conditions, a laboratory prototype MOF-based water harvesting device yielded 17 liters of water per kilogram of MOF per day without requiring added energy. The device uses only the temperature difference between day and night and ambient solar radiation to drive the water capture and release cycle. This performance represents a significant advance toward making atmospheric water harvesting practical for providing drinking water in water-scarce regions.

The efficiency of MOFs for water harvesting stems from several factors. Their high porosity provides abundant sites for water molecule adsorption. The tunability of MOFs allows researchers to optimize the strength of water-MOF interactions. If water binds too weakly, the MOF cannot capture significant quantities at low humidity. If water binds too strongly, too much energy is required to release it. MOFs like MOF-303 achieve a balance that enables efficient capture and release under realistic conditions.

Beyond drinking water production, MOFs are being explored for applications in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Water-adsorbing MOFs could enable more energy-efficient cooling by using the heat of water adsorption and desorption. This could reduce the energy consumption of air conditioning systems, which accounts for a substantial portion of building energy use.

Researchers continue developing new MOFs optimized for water harvesting under different climatic conditions. Some MOFs work better in more humid environments, while others are designed for extremely arid conditions. The goal is to create a toolkit of materials that can provide water access across diverse geographic and climatic settings.

Gas Storage and Separation

The high porosity and tunable pore chemistry of MOFs make them excellent materials for storing and separating gases, with applications spanning clean energy, industrial processes, and environmental protection.

Hydrogen storage represents a critical challenge for fuel cell vehicles and renewable energy systems. Hydrogen has the highest energy density by mass of any fuel, but its low density as a gas means it must be compressed to high pressures or liquefied at cryogenic temperatures for practical storage. MOFs offer an alternative by adsorbing hydrogen at much lower pressures than traditional compressed storage. The hydrogen molecules are held within the MOF pores by weak van der Waals forces. While no MOF has yet achieved the storage capacity needed to meet all targets for vehicle applications, research continues toward materials that can store sufficient hydrogen at moderate pressures and temperatures.

Methane storage in MOFs presents similar opportunities for natural gas vehicles. MOFs can store methane at lower pressures than conventional compressed natural gas tanks, potentially improving safety and reducing the weight of storage systems.

Gas separation represents another important application. Many industrial processes require separating gas mixtures, and MOFs offer energy-efficient alternatives to traditional separation methods. For example, NbOFFIVE-1-Ni (also known as KAUST-7) can separate propane from propylene with nearly 100 percent selectivity through differences in how these molecules diffuse through the framework. This separation is valuable for the petrochemical industry, where propylene is a valuable feedstock for plastics production.

Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs), a subfamily of MOFs constructed from metal ions and imidazolate linkers, show particular promise for gas storage and separation. The bonding angles in imidazolate mimic those in zeolites, causing ZIFs to adopt zeolite-like structures. ZIFs often exhibit higher thermal stability than other MOFs, with some stable up to 500 degrees Celsius. ZIF-8 has been commercialized for various gas separation applications.

MOFs are being explored for removing toxic or harmful gases from air and water. They can capture volatile organic compounds, which are harmful air pollutants from industrial processes and consumer products. MOFs designed with specific chemical functionalities can selectively bind these compounds, removing them from air streams.

In the defense sector, researchers have developed MOFs capable of detoxifying chemical weapons. Lanthanum-based frameworks linked to porphyrin molecules can absorb light and use that energy to generate reactive singlet oxygen. This reactive oxygen breaks down molecules similar to mustard gas. Other MOFs based on zirconium, hafnium, and cerium can detoxify nerve agents like sarin gas. Coatings of these MOFs on gas masks and protective clothing could help protect military personnel and first responders from chemical weapons exposure.

Catalysis Applications

The porous structure, high surface area, and tunable chemistry of MOFs make them attractive platforms for catalysis. MOFs can function as catalysts themselves, or they can serve as supports for catalytic nanoparticles or molecular catalysts.

MOF-based catalysts offer several advantages over traditional heterogeneous catalysts. The crystalline structure allows precise determination of active site locations and environments. The pore size can be tuned to provide size selectivity, allowing only molecules of appropriate dimensions to reach catalytic sites. This enables selective catalysis where only desired reactions occur. The ability to functionalize MOF pores with specific chemical groups enables precise control over the chemical environment around catalytic sites.

In one striking example, researchers encapsulated the enzyme formate dehydrogenase within a MOF. The MOF protected the fragile enzyme from harsh environmental conditions while allowing substrates to access it. The MOF-encapsulated enzyme converted carbon dioxide to formic acid, an important industrial chemical, at more than three times the rate of the free enzyme and under more environmentally friendly conditions than traditional formic acid production.

Researchers have also encapsulated pairs of catalysts within MOFs to enable tandem reactions. A study from Boston College demonstrated that two enzyme-like catalysts encapsulated in a zirconium-based MOF could drive a series of reactions converting gaseous CO2 to methanol, a liquid fuel. Without the MOF protection, the two catalysts quickly deactivated, likely by reacting with each other, and produced no methanol. The MOF pores kept the catalysts separated while allowing substrates and intermediates to move between them.

MOFs have been applied as catalysts for numerous organic transformations including oxidation reactions, Friedel-Crafts reactions, condensation reactions, and coupling reactions. However, realizing the full potential of MOFs in organic synthesis catalysis requires careful consideration. The heterogenization of catalysts (converting homogeneous catalysts to solid-supported versions) incurs costs in terms of synthesis, characterization, and potentially reduced catalytic efficiency. These costs can only be justified when the MOF catalyst provides excellent selectivity control and yields that outcompete other available systems.

Post-synthetic metalation, where catalytically active metal sites are introduced into MOFs after synthesis, has proven particularly valuable. Many catalysts cannot survive the harsh conditions used in MOF synthesis, but PSM allows their incorporation afterward. This strategy has enabled the development of size-selective catalysts based on reticular chemistry principles.

For electrocatalysis applications, MOFs face challenges due to their typically insulating nature. Researchers have addressed this by creating MOF composites with conductive materials like graphene or carbon nanotubes. These nanocomposites exhibit high electrical conductivity while maintaining the structural benefits of MOFs. Such materials are being explored for applications in batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells.

Drug Delivery Systems

The biomedical applications of MOFs, particularly drug delivery, represent an emerging frontier with substantial potential for improving therapeutic outcomes. MOFs offer several advantages as drug carriers compared to traditional systems like liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles.

The high porosity of MOFs enables drug loading capacities that significantly exceed those of conventional carriers, which often achieve less than 5 percent drug loading. Some MOFs can load drugs at 30 to 50 percent by weight, reducing the amount of carrier material needed and potentially decreasing side effects associated with carrier toxicity. The crystalline structure of MOFs allows precise control over pore size and chemistry, enabling optimization of drug-MOF interactions and release kinetics.

For MOFs to function as drug delivery systems, they must be biocompatible. Researchers have focused on frameworks constructed from metals that are naturally present in the body or have established safety profiles. Iron, zinc, calcium, copper, manganese, and magnesium are commonly used. Iron is particularly attractive since it is an essential nutrient and even approved as an oral supplement. MOFs like MIL-88 and MIL-101, both iron-based frameworks, have shown promising safety profiles in toxicity studies.

One remarkable example of a biocompatible MOF is CD-MOF-1, synthesized from gamma-cyclodextrin and potassium ions. Cyclodextrins are produced from starch and are used in food and pharmaceutical applications. Researchers demonstrated a remarkably simple synthesis for CD-MOF-1 by dissolving cyclodextrin and a potassium salt in water and allowing grain alcohol to diffuse into the solution over a week. This simple, aqueous synthesis using food-grade materials exemplifies the potential for creating safe, scalable MOF drug carriers.

Drug loading into MOFs can be achieved through several strategies. Encapsulation involves incorporating drugs into MOF pores through physisorption after framework synthesis. Direct assembly uses drug molecules or their derivatives as linkers during MOF synthesis, incorporating the drug directly into the framework structure. Post-synthesis approaches involve chemical modification of MOF linkers to attach drug molecules covalently.

Controlled drug release is essential for therapeutic efficacy. MOFs enable multiple mechanisms for triggering drug release. pH-responsive release exploits the pH differences between healthy tissue (pH ~7.4) and tumor microenvironments (pH ~6.5-6.8) or endosomal compartments (pH ~5-6). MOFs can be designed to remain stable at physiological pH but degrade or release drug in acidic conditions. Temperature-responsive MOFs release drug when heated, which can be triggered by external heating or by the elevated temperature of inflamed tissue. Magnetic MOFs containing iron oxide nanoparticles can be heated by applying an alternating magnetic field, triggering localized drug release.

Researchers have developed sophisticated multifunctional MOF systems for cancer therapy. One example involves a dual-layered MOF system with a MIL-88 core and a ZIF-8 shell. The two layers create separate functional regions for co-delivery of multiple drugs. Doxorubicin, a chemotherapy drug, was loaded in the ZIF-8 shell, while indocyanine green (ICG), a photothermal agent, was encapsulated in the MIL-88 core. This system enables combined chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy. Drug release is triggered by low pH and accelerated by near-infrared light irradiation.

Another innovative approach involves modifying MIL-101-NH2 with both targeting molecules and therapeutic agents. When activated by light, the system triggers both photothermal therapy (heating cancer cells) and stimulates the immune system to mount a long-acting antitumor response.

Challenges remain before MOF drug delivery systems reach widespread clinical use. Comprehensive toxicity studies are needed to ensure safety. The size and morphology of MOF nanoparticles must be optimized to ensure prolonged circulation in blood and effective tumor targeting. Methods for large-scale production of pharmaceutical-grade MOFs with consistent quality need development. Despite these challenges, the progress in MOF-based drug delivery since the first report in 2006 has been remarkable, and these systems are expected to achieve significant advances in nanomedicine.

Sensing and Detection

The selective molecular recognition properties of MOFs make them valuable for sensing applications. MOFs can detect specific molecules by changes in their optical, electrical, or other physical properties when target molecules enter the pores.

By incorporating fluorescent molecules into MOF structures, researchers have created sensors that detect specific gases or chemicals with high sensitivity. When target molecules interact with the MOF, they can quench or enhance the fluorescence signal, providing a measurable response. Such sensors have potential applications in environmental monitoring, detecting pollutants or hazardous gases.

Surface-mounted MOF (SURMOF) films grown on electronic devices enable selective molecular detection. Researchers demonstrated that copper-based SURMOF-2 grown on graphene field-effect transistors creates a sensor specifically sensitive to ethanol but not to methanol or isopropanol. The selective molecular recognition provided by the MOF pore chemistry enables discrimination between closely related molecules.

MOFs are being explored for biosensing applications, detecting biomolecules, proteins, or disease biomarkers. The ability to functionalize MOF pores with specific recognition elements enables detection of target molecules at low concentrations. Electrochemical sensors based on MOF-graphene nanocomposites have demonstrated high sensitivity for detecting hydrogen peroxide and glucose, important for medical diagnostics.

Commercial Development and Market Growth

The transition of MOFs from laboratory curiosities to commercial products has accelerated dramatically in recent years. Over the past three decades, researchers have created more than 100,000 different MOF structures in laboratories worldwide. While this diversity reflects the enormous design space available, it also presents challenges in identifying which MOFs are best suited for specific commercial applications.

Several companies have emerged as leaders in commercializing MOF technologies. Svante Inc. focuses on carbon capture applications and has developed industrial-scale production capabilities for MOF-based carbon capture materials. The company supplies materials to both point-source carbon capture facilities at industrial plants and direct air capture operations.

Promethean Particles, recognized as one of the 2025 WIRED Trailblazers for its innovative work, has developed proprietary continuous-flow manufacturing processes enabling industrial-scale production of high-quality, cost-effective MOFs. The company produces MOFs for applications including carbon capture, biogas upgrading, atmospheric water harvesting, and gas storage and separation.

Market analyses indicate substantial growth potential. One report predicted that sales of MOFs for applications including gas storage, separation, and detection will reach $410 million annually within five years, up from $70 million in 2024. Another analysis forecasts a 33-fold growth in demand for MOFs in carbon capture applications between the mid-2020s and mid-2030s.

The commercialization of MOFs faces several challenges. Production costs must decrease to compete with established technologies. Many MOFs require expensive organic linkers or rare metals, and synthesis involves organic solvents that create waste. Scaling production from grams in research laboratories to tons for industrial applications requires substantial engineering and capital investment.

Stability represents another commercial challenge. Many MOFs are sensitive to moisture or degrade over extended periods. For commercial viability, MOFs must maintain performance over thousands of cycles and years of operation. Researchers have developed increasingly stable MOFs, particularly zirconium and aluminum-based frameworks, but stability remains an important consideration in materials selection.

Despite these challenges, the commercial outlook for MOFs is increasingly positive. The materials have progressed from showing promise for many applications to demonstrating real performance advantages in specific use cases. As Omar Farha, a MOF researcher at Northwestern University, noted in 2024: “Ten years ago, MOFs showed promise for a lot of applications. Now, that promise has become a reality.”

Future Prospects and Ongoing Research

The field of MOF research continues to evolve rapidly, with new structures and applications emerging regularly. Several research directions show particular promise for future developments.

Integrating MOFs with nanotechnology could create hybrid materials with enhanced properties and functionalities. Combining MOFs with nanoparticles or graphene could yield materials with improved electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, or optical characteristics. Such hybrids might enable new applications in electronics, energy storage, and sensing that are not possible with MOFs alone.

Developing MOFs with multiple functionalities within a single framework represents another frontier. Compartmentalized MOFs that feature distinct structural regions with different chemical environments could enable complex chemical transformations. Recent research demonstrated the synthesis of MOFs incorporating both covalent organic frameworks (as infinite building units) and metal clusters, creating materials with compartmentalized pores and unique properties.

Improving the sustainability of MOF synthesis remains an important research goal. Green chemistry approaches including mechanochemical synthesis, aqueous synthesis, and electrochemical methods reduce environmental impact compared to traditional solvothermal methods requiring large volumes of organic solvents. Developing MOFs from abundant, inexpensive, and non-toxic precursors would enhance their commercial viability and environmental profile.

Advanced computational methods are accelerating MOF discovery and optimization. High-throughput computational screening can predict the properties of millions of hypothetical MOF structures, identifying promising candidates before expensive synthesis and testing. Machine learning approaches help establish structure-property relationships and guide rational design of MOFs for specific applications. These computational tools are becoming increasingly sophisticated and are expected to play a growing role in MOF development.

Understanding and controlling defects in MOF structures represents an active research area. Defects, such as missing linkers or metal nodes, were initially viewed as synthesis artifacts to be minimized. However, researchers increasingly recognize that controlled introduction of defects can create beneficial properties such as enhanced catalytic activity or improved gas adsorption. Defect engineering is emerging as a tool for tuning MOF properties.

Developing flexible or stimuli-responsive MOFs that change their structure in response to external triggers could enable new applications. Frameworks that “breathe” or undergo structural transitions in response to specific molecules could provide highly selective sensing or separation. Temperature, light, or magnetic fields could trigger structural changes that control molecular access to active sites or release captured molecules on demand.

Conclusion

Metal-organic frameworks represent a remarkable convergence of inorganic and organic chemistry that has created materials with properties once thought impossible. Their extraordinary porosity, vast surface areas, and unparalleled tunability have opened new possibilities across numerous fields from environmental protection to medicine.

The 2025 Nobel Prize recognition of Kitagawa, Robson, and Yaghi celebrates not just their fundamental discoveries but the entire field they helped create. From Robson’s diamond-inspired vision in the 1980s through Kitagawa’s demonstration of reversible gas adsorption and Yaghi’s development of ultra-porous frameworks and reticular chemistry, these scientists laid the foundation for a materials revolution.

Today, MOFs are moving beyond academic laboratories into commercial applications addressing pressing global challenges. They are capturing carbon dioxide from industrial emissions, harvesting water from desert air, enabling cleaner energy storage, and advancing precision medicine. Companies are producing MOFs at industrial scales, and market growth projections suggest these materials will play increasingly important roles in sustainability and technology.

Challenges remain. Production costs must decrease further, stability must improve for long-term applications, and manufacturing must scale while maintaining quality. However, the rapid progress of recent years demonstrates that these obstacles are surmountable. The field continues advancing through improved synthetic methods, better understanding of structure-property relationships, and integration with complementary technologies.

Perhaps most remarkably, after three decades of intensive research yielding over 100,000 distinct MOF structures, the field is far from exhausted. The combinatorial possibilities of metals and organic linkers ensure that many more structures await discovery. Each new MOF potentially enables applications not yet imagined, solving problems not yet fully articulated.

As the Nobel Committee noted, metal-organic frameworks bring previously unforeseen opportunities for custom-made materials with new functions. From the molecular scale to global impact, MOFs exemplify how fundamental research in materials science can address humanity’s greatest challenges. The story of MOFs is still being written, and the next chapters promise to be as transformative as those that have come before.